Over 70 maps of various locations are found in John Sorenson’s The Geography of Book of Mormon Events: A Source Book, with by far the greatest majority of them based on a Central America setting. Since many believe his to be the most comprehensive, I will base most of my comparisons on Sorenson’s work.

The Promised Land

    In his workbook, The Geography of Book of Mormon Events: A Source Book, John Sorenson gives only one reason for his placement of the promised land in Central America.

    "The promised land was quite surely located in the tropics since no indication of cold or snow is given in the text, while heat is." [1]

    The subject of the weather is discussed in another segment of this site, including the mention of colder weather. The promised land is also discussed in an earlier segment which provides a much better examination of that subject than will be presented here.
      We are given our first clue as to the whereabouts of the land of promise in the Jaredite record where we learn that:

    After the waters had receded from off the face of this land it became a choice land above all other lands, a chosen land of the Lord; wherefore the Lord would have that all men should serve him who dwell upon the face thereof; And that it was the place of the New Jerusalem, . . . (Ether: l 3: 2-3.)
 

    The D&C 84:3, clearly informs us that the New Jerusalem will be built along the western borders of Missouri. President Ezra Taft Benson taught us that the promised land was to be the Lord’s latter-day base of operations for the restored church:

    Our Father in Heaven planned the coming forth of the Founding Fathers and their form of government as the necessary great prologue leading to the restoration of the gospel. Recall what our Savior Jesus Christ said nearly two thousand years ago when He visited this promised land; ‘for it is wisdom in the Father that they should be established in this land, and be set up as a free people by the power of the Father, that these things might come forth. (Ezra Taft Benson, Conference Report, 3, Oct., 1987-emphasis added.)

    The Lord, himself, forever settles the question as to where the promised land is located.

Wherefore, this is the land of promise, and the place for the city of Zion. (D&C 57:2, emphases added.)

Directional Designations

    By using the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the narrow neck of land in the Mesoamerican setting, the theorists of that model are faced with the problem of having the east and west seas directly north and south of the narrow neck rather than east and west as stated in the scriptures. Thus, to correct the problem, they have opted to skew the almost universally used cardinal directions of our modern compass by 45 degrees which would then allow the Gulf waters which are really to the north of the isthmus, to be east, and the Pacific Ocean which is actually to the south of the isthmus, to be on the west. Their scholarly approach to this issue, which many people take exception to, especially anti-Mormons, is extremely complex. In fact, Mesoamerica theorists themselves readily admit that it “seems counter-intuitive to many people who do not have exposure to the literature of astronomy, anthropology or history...”[2]—thus implying that only the scholarly can understand such matters.
    In an effort to make things fit, Sorenson suggests Lehi’s colony simply changed their directional system once they landed in the New World. We read:

    Suppose, for a moment, that you were with Lehi’s party as it arrived on the Pacific coast of Central America. By western civilizations’ general present-day terminology, the shore would be oriented approximately northwest-southeast. When you said yamah, intending’ westward,’ the term would mean literally ‘seaward.’ although the water would literally be behind your back to today’s southwest. Further, the first step you took inland, away from the sea would be ‘eastward’ (‘to the fore,’ literally) in Hebrew; but we today would say the motion had been northeast. In absence if a conscious group decision to shift the sense of their Hebrew direction term by 45 degrees or more (something almost impossibly linguistically), the little group of colonists would have fallen into a new directional language pattern, skewed from the Cardinal points, as their Semitic-language model encountered the new setting. (John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon, p. 39.)

    Mesoamerican theorists defend this highly technical way of calculating directions by claiming that only those with a better understanding of scholarly matters are able to understand such things.

    Because the Lord delights in plainness, and because the Book of Mormon was translated by divine means, this author feels we can trust that the scriptures, including any directional designation, were translated into language even the simplest of us could understand. Thus, North would mean north and south would mean south, etc. The New York setting is laid out in precisely the manner described in the Book of Mormon, and every reference to northward or southward or east or west can be clearly understood.

    For my soul delighteth in plainness; for after this manner doth the Lord God work among the children of men. For the Lord God giveth light unto their understanding; for he speaketh unto men according to their language, unto their understanding. (2 Nephi 31:3.)

    Moreover, evidence indicates the four cardinal points were actually revered by prehistoric Americans throughout the hemisphere. This in itself would tend to discount any notion that it was necessary for Lehi’s colony to change the cardinal points once they touched down in the New World. (They used the same Cardinal Points we use today in their sojourn though the Arabian desert after leaving Jerusalem.) Archaeological investigations show that cities throughout both Mexico and Yucatan, as well the mound building regions of the eastern United States, including both the Hopewell (500 B.C. - 400 A.D.) and the later Mississippi Culture (700 A.D. 1500 A.D.), were laid out with careful regard to the cardinal points.
    Cecil Brown’s study of the cardinal directional terms in a number of North American Indian languages reveal:

...east {the location of the rising sun} was the singularly most important directional designation in 15 Woodland languages - with west as the second. Interestingly, the next in importance were the terms ‘up’ and ‘down’ with north or south considered last.” (Maureen Korp, The Sacred Geography of the American Mound Builders, p. 45.)

    One of the greatest, and perhaps the most radical, of all the contradictions found in the Mesoamerican setting is the assumption made by the authors of that theory that a second Hill Cumorah exists in Central America closer to the territory they speculate to be Book of Mormon lands—even though archeological efforts have failed to find evidence of warfare in that area.

    Archeological work done in the area where the final Nephite battles took place - supposing that to be around the Tuxtla Mountains of Veracruz - is not sufficiently detailed to identify evidence of battles. (Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon, p. 133.)

    Other Mesoamerican theorists believe there is only one Hill Cumorah but place it in Central America closer to the territory they speculate to be Book of Mormon lands.

    All New York theorists believe that the Hill Cumorah in western New York is the very same Hill Ramah/Cumorah described in the Book of Mormon. They believe it was on that very hill Joseph Smith received the Golden Plates from the Angel Moroni. Furthermore, archaeological evidence proves beyond question that it was the sight of a major battle.

    The Museums in New York state are filled with the instruments of warfare that had been fashioned by the red men and so freely used in that historic area. The opinion is expressed in all those relic halls that western New York was the site of an ancient battlefield. There is more evidence of a well planned defensive warfare in that locality than there is in any other region on the American Continent. It is the opinion of most scholars that the defenses on the drumlin hills were prepared by a people more civilized than the Indians and were exterminated by the inferior race who were still in possession of the country when Columbus discovered this land. (H. E. Abbot. Primitive Industry, pp. 203-288, 415-417.)

    And for those wondering what the General Authorities have to say on the matter, the following statement by Joseph Fielding Smith should suffice. It was first printed in the Church News, Sept. 10, 1938, and then a second time sixteen years later on February 27, 1954. It was later included in the Doctrines of Salvation.

    We cannot say that the Nephites and Lamanites did not possess the territory of the United States and that the Hill Cumorah is in Central America. Neither can we say that the great struggle which resulted in the destruction of the Nephites took place in Central America . . . From all the evidence in the Book of Mormon, augmented by the testimony of the Prophet Joseph Smith, these final battles took place in the territory known as the United States and in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes and hills of Western New York. And here Moroni found the resting place for the sacred instruments that were committed to his care.

    I am convinced that the reference to a north sea and a south sea is devoid of any concrete geographical content. All specific reference or allusions to Book of Mormon seas are only to the east and west seas. Any geography that tries to accommodate a north and south sea, . . is doomed to fail. But we cannot dismiss the reference to these seas out of hand. If they are metaphorical, what was the metaphor? [3]

    Once again, taking the scriptures at face value, as we all should, we would have to assume a north and south sea are pertinent to the geographical location of the Book of Mormon lands. In the New York setting the four seas described are clearly defined. While the seas which bordered the land southward were referred to as the west sea (Lake Erie) and the east sea (A Genesee Lake, both proper names, the seas mentioned in relation to the those in the land northward were referred to in relation to their placement in the land. It seems that as more and more Nephites began moving northward, they ultimately spread, insomuch that they filled every river valley in southern Ontario, from Georgian Bay on the north (sea north) to Lake Erie on the south (sea south), and from Lake Huron on the west (sea west) to Lake Ontario on the east (sea east)—the lakes referred to by their positions in the land, not by name, for the east sea proper was further south.

    And it came to pass that they did multiply and spread, and did go forth from the land southward to the land northward, and did spread insomuch that they began to cover the face of the whole earth, from the sea south to the sea north, from the sea west to the sea east. (Helaman 3:8.)

     No attempt to isolate this important landmark appears to have been made other than to try and associate it with a river which runs through a portion of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.

    The sea that divides the land is one of the most important landmarks in all of Book of Mormon territory and is key to the overall understanding of the geographical layout of the Book of Mormon. It defines the lands northward and southward and lays just to the north of Bountiful. In the New York setting an ancient sea which once filled the plains just to the south of Lake Ontario fits the description of this sea surprisingly well and helps to clarify the mysteries surrounding the junction where Bountiful, Desolation and the narrow neck intersect. This ancient sea, named Lake Tonawanda, spread across the flat plains to the south of Lake Ontario fifty eight miles and ranged in depth from thirty feet in its western basin to twenty feet in its eastern basin.

. . . and thus the land of Nephi and the land of Zarahemla were nearly surrounded by water, there being a small neck of land between the land northward and the land southward. (Alma 22:32.)

    The waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which they take to be the East Sea, (although it lay north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec), borders Mesoamerica on one side, and the Pacific Ocean, which they take to be the West sea, although it borders the Isthmus on the south, on the other. No other seas are noted in their settings.

    If we take Alma 22:32 at face value, and again, we should, we would expect to find water on nearly all four sides of the lands of Zarahemla and the land of Nephi, not just an illusion, or metaphor of seas, as Clark suggests. In the New York setting this is accomplished without difficulty. The accompanying picture represents ancient New York as it appeared in more primeval times. While the more ancient waters have long since disappeared, even today the rivers and lakes, which still border the proposed lands of Zarahemla and the Land of Nephi, nearly surround them on all sides. Far too many look for far grander bodies of water than the ancient scribes intended.

 (The subject is explained in more detail in The Lost Empires of the Book of Mormon, offered on this site.)

    Mesoamerican Theorists define the narrow neck of land by the seas that lay on either side which they speculate infers an isthmus—in this case, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Although the narrow neck is described as a narrow passage from one land to the other with seas to either side of it, the distance across that narrow stretch of land should never be equated with the distance across Bountiful, for Bountiful is described as laying to the south of the narrow neck, not within it. In fact, all the evidence provided in the scriptures implies the narrow neck was a separate landmark altogether. Even so, Mesoamerican theorists equate the distance across the isthmus with the same distance it would take a Nephite to travel across Bountiful in 1 ½ days. Their calculations are just as troublesome, for now they must somehow get that Nephite across the 120 mile isthmus in just 1 ½ days.

    In our modern age of satellites and space probes, the view of our world has become much smaller and consequently we can view the great continents with ease. We must remind ourselves, however, that those who lived in more ancient times were not so privileged as we, and could only describe their world from the limited perspective that comes from direct eye contact with their immediate surrounding. Thus 120 mile stretch of land would hardly seem to qualify as a narrow neck of land by any standards of that day.

    The narrow neck of land in the New York setting is nothing more than a narrow strip of land made up of a moraine of till that extended right through the sea that divided the lands (Lake Tonawanda) mentioned in Ether 10:20. This Moraine, which was high enough to stand above the 35 ft. deep waters, allowed travelers to journey from one side of the sea to the other with ease. This small neck of land was situated just to the northeast of Bountiful on the borders of Desolation just where the scriptures place it. A modern highway carries passengers across the narrow neck today.

    In John Sorenson’s Mesoamerican model, the narrow pass is considered distinctly separate from the narrow neck and lay somewhere within the narrow neck.

    An irregular sandstone and gravel formation appears as a ridge above the surrounding country running west from the lower Coatzacoalcos River. It provides the only reliable year-round route from the isthmian /east coast area ‘northward’ into central Veracruz. A great deal of the land on either side of this ridge is flooded periodically, as much as 12 feet deep in the rainy season. At times during the season the ridge pass would indeed lead ‘by the sea, on the west and on the east’ as described in Alma 50:34. [6]

    This author, who is just one of several New York theorists, believes the narrow neck and the narrow pass are terms that are used interchangeably. Both terms clearly describe an area which sits just to the northeast of Bountiful, by Desolation, and is bordered on both sides by seas. If they were two separate areas the surrounding landmarks would have been described differently. (See Alma 22:32, Alma 63:5, Ether 10:20, Mormon 3:5, Alma 52:9, Alma 50:34, Mormon 2:29.)

   Commenting on the reference to Morianton’s flight to “the land northward, which was covered with large bodies of water” Sorenson had this to say:

    Most cities are placed in the various Mesoamerican models in a similar fashion with only slight variations according to personal preference and topographical limitations. However, some theories place one particular city outside of scriptural guidelines - the city of Mulek!

“. . . and had obtained possession of the city of Mulek, which was one of the strongest holds of the Lamanites in the land of Nephi;” (Alma 53:6.)

    Due to the lack of evidence of the existence of any of the animals mentioned in the scriptures, John Sorenson has prepared a list of animals he feels might be those Book of Mormon authors were referring to. [9]

Cow-       Wild cows were present upon European contact.
Horse-      Horse (bones of horses have also been found in New York.)
Ass-         (No remains found.)
Elephant-  Numerous Mastodon and Mammoth bones have been found in New York as well as
artifacts depicting that huge animal which indicates human contact with them.
Sheep-     The remains of a domesticated sheep dating to the Nephite era has been found just to the east of the Hill Cumorah on Kipp Island.
Goat-       Goats were spotted in area as early as 1680. Depictions of goats have also been found on ancient tablets.
Dog -      Dog. The remains of dogs found interred with humans suggests both the Nephites and Jaredites kept them as pets.
Swine-      Peccaries. (Wild Pig.)

Corn -   Found in abundance in burial mounds and in ancient fortifications.
Wheat- While kernels of wheat have not yet been found, because of its fertile lands and temperate
             climate New York is one of the country’s leading supplier of wheat over the years. Therefore,
             it would seem reasonable to assume that wheat could have easily thrived in the ancient setting
             as well although no specimens have been found.
Barley- While barley flourishes along the Mohawk valley in New York because of its fertile fields, and
            because the climate and soil conditions are favorable for this plant’s survivability we can
            suppose barley could have thrived during the Book of Mormon era as well. Little barley is
            more hardy and has been traced back to ancient times as far north as Canada.

    Sorenson agrees that much more research is needed. The recent discovery of a few metal artifacts indicate metals may have been used before that time.

    The Great Lakes region is the manufacturing center of the country and is rich in ores such as copper and iron. With so much ore available it is not surprising that such an abundance of iron, steel, copper and brass artifacts have been unearthed in the vicinity - some of which date back to 2,500 B.C.

    Most of the popular cities thought to be Nephite ruins in Mesoamerica were built in the years post-dating the Book of Mormon epoch. Even so, history will prove that many of Lehi’s descendants may have been involved in their creation. Thus, I see no reason to forego any visit to those exotic places and enjoy the beauty of the region, but only with the understanding that the grand monuments discovered in both Mexico and Mesoamerica were patterned after an even older civilization, a civilization that rose and fell in the regions of Cumorah but sadly, a civilization lost through time, lost not only because of the moist conditions in the northeast, but because the scriptures tell us the Lamanites set about burning every city, village, temple and synagogue the Nephites left behind. Moreover, that ancient civilization predates those who escaped that massacre ultimately built up in Mexico and Central America by a thousand years, far too long for the wooden structures of the Nephites to have survived. Only those fortifications made from oaken palisades survived the ages as did their earthen monuments.

    The archaeological evidence of an ancient people living in western New York is overwhelming. Most historians believe that they were destroyed by the Indians who took over their lands and remained until they were discovery by European explorers many centuries later.

    The historian, Turner, has written extensively about the mysterious people who once lived in New York.

    There appears to be a gap in the history of the world, so far as relates to them, which can never be filled up. True we may conjecture what and who they were; . . . we may picture them in our minds as a flourishing and mighty nation, possessing all the advantages and blessings of civil and religious liberty; powerful in wealth and natural resources; combining moral and political excellence; and seated upon the pinnacle of national prosperity and glory- and we may suppose that some dreadful plague, some natural calamity swept them from the face of the earth; or perhaps like Sodom and Gomorrah of old, their natural sins became so heinous, that the Almighty in his wrath utterly annihilated them; - but after all our own conjectures cannot lead us to any satisfactory results. . . .
    Who they were; from whence they sprung; and what was their destiny remains locked up on the womb of the past, one of these events which defy human kind or human examination; which loom up on the far-off ocean of bygone years, with enough of the reality about it to convince us that they are no fiction, but yet clothed with an indistinctness which defies investigation. The origin, the history, the destiny of that people, together with the cause of their extinction, is (to use the beautiful language of an elegant modern writer) ‘consigned to the receptacle of things forever lost upon the earth.’ [16]

Final Thoughts

    Bones, many of which indicate a race of people one third larger than the present, have been found throughout the northeastern United States. Artifacts of brass, copper, silver and iron have been found everywhere - including swords and shields and numerous articles of warfare. Fortifications such as those built by Moroni dot the countryside, and the evidence of a superior race who predate the Indians can be found throughout the territory. Thus, with the evidence gleaned from archaeology, anthropology, and geography, we have every reason to suggest the New York setting is a viable candidate for the long lost lands of the Book of Mormon.

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