Animal bones are not buried in most cases but are strewn along the ground to be destroyed by the elements of nature. Thus, few bones of the myriad of animals that have roamed the earth exist for long. Even though only a few usable bones have been found, even in areas where such animals existed in great numbers, the presence of even a small number is most helpful in our reconstruction of the ancient Book of Mormon setting.
To supplement the smaller domesticated animals
the Jaredites brought with them from the Old World, the northeastern woodlands provided them with a rich supply
of game animals which survived the glacial period, including the white-tailed deer, moose, black bear, beaver
and turkey, all of which were highly sought after by both Nephite and Jaredite hunters. In the spring the ground
was covered with succulent herbs which brought vast herds of deer, elk and bison into the region—the bison being
particularly useful not only as a meat source, but for its thick hide. The relatively warm, humid weather also
made it favorable for gathering of wild berries and food plants which thrived in such conditions. Even some tree
barks were edible.
When the early explorers first entered New York they found deer, moose, elk, beavers, otters,
minks, martins, rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, bears, wildcats, and panthers, each highly sought after for their pelts.
Champlain was particularly struck with the number of fowls, such as turkeys, pheasants, partridges, pigeons, plovers,
heath fowl, Indian hens, wild geese and ducks. The Lakes were filled with salmon-trout, white and yellow perch, sheep-heads,
pike, succors, large eel, and others. Thus, the entire region was amply supplied with all the natural resources needed for survival.
The remains of most of the animals mentioned in the Book of Mormon, namely the cow, horse, ox, ass, sheep, goat, swine, dog,
and elephant have been found in New York, although not all.
Cow
The remains of cows dating to prehistoric times have not yet been found in the region. Even so, wild cows were present in the area upon European contact, and who can say they had not come down through the centuries? From E. B. Callaghan’s Documentary History of the State of New York, IV, p. 4, we read of the explorer Champlain’s adventures into the Finger Lakes region, or the land of many waters. He said: “We saw in divers quarters, immense herds of wild bulls and cows; their horns resembling, in some respect, the antlers of a stag . . . . At the side of the rapids we perceived a herd of wild cows which were passing at their ease in great state. Five or six hundred are seen sometimes in these regions in one drove.”[1]
Horse
Many horse bones have also been found in New York. While many believe they date to more archaic times, there is evidence that horses were transported to the Americas by ancient mariners during the Nephite era, a topic discussed in the author’s new book, Lost Empires of the Book of Mormon.
Elephant
Numerous Mastodon and Mammoth bones have been found in New York. Evidence indicates that at least three species of the elephant family made the region around the Genesee River Valley in western New York their feeding ground.
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Hartnagel and Bishop list 119 finds in New York alone, which he believes roamed the land
in great herds. Fairchild
claims that those thus far discovered in New York include the Mastodon and two or
three species of elephant.
Fairchild maintains that if one could venture
into
the primeval Genesee forests only a few thousand years ago, he would have come face to
face with the huge Mastodon, and also the hairy Mammoth, which is considered a true elephant.[2] But of greatest importance, the fact that spear points have been found in some proving
they existed contemporaneously with man, which would certainly square with the Book of Mormon’s account of the
Jaredites who are said to have used
elephants as beasts of burden. (See Ether 9:19.)
The bones of other animals found in the area include the dire wolf, giant beaver, some as large as
the black bear; reindeer, the extinct American horse, bear,
caribou, moose, moose-elk, seal, deer, woodland bison (buffalo), and giant beaver. It is believed the panther,
arctic fox, wolverine and badger were also part of New York’s wildlife, as were the rhinoceros, camel, an
extinct species of bison, reindeer, musk-ox, three types of giant ground-sloths, giant armadillo, tapir, saber tooth tiger,
Peccary, or wild pig, the swine being another of the animals mentioned in the scriptures.
Sheep
The remains of a young domesticated sheep has been found in Kip Island in New York’s Seneca River which dated to 210 A.D., which was within the Nephite era[3] an animal needed for their sacrificial offerings in compliance with the Law of Moses in the centuries before Christ.
Dog
Dog burials dating as far back as the Jaredite era suggest the ancients kept them as pets. One burial site contained the bones of a puppy nestled close beside the bones of a child as though sending it off to the other world as a companion for the deceased.[4]
Plants
(Plants mentioned in the Book of Mormon include corn, wheat, barley, plus neas and sheum (both of which are unknown to us.) As in the case of animal bones, the absence of archaeological evidence of any of these grains does not prove they did not exist in either setting, but only proves that such grains were simply too fragile to survive over time.)
Not only were flowers found everywhere, but a vast assortment of birds filled the land with song and color, with passenger pigeons, which were also used for food, so abundant they darkened the sky when they flew overhead. Thus, from earliest of times, the northeastern woodlands, with its abundance of natural resources, has always been inviting to human occupation.
Corn
Corn was recently found in a Hopewellian site in Illinois dating to the Nephite era.[5] Squash found in one archaic site in New York and a carbonized corn-cob in another.[6] These finds should help answer the long-debated question as to whether the ancient populations of New York cultivated corn.
Wheat
Because of its fertile lands and temperate climate, New York has been one of the country’s leading supplier of wheat over the years. Therefore, it would seem reasonable to assume that wheat could have easily thrived in the ancient setting as well, although no specimens have as yet been found.
Barley
Barley still flourishes along the Mohawk valley in New York today because of its fertile fields. Along with dairy products, this famous farming region raises hay, oats, barley, buckwheat and corn. Since the climate and soil conditions are favorable for this plant’s survivability we can likewise assume that barley could have thrived during the Book of Mormon era as well.
Some have criticized the Book of Mormon because it mentions barley, a crop that was long
thought to be native only to the Eastern Hemisphere. But, in 1983, scientists discovered a form of pre-Columbian
domesticated barley in Arizona. Whether or not this is the barley of the Book of Mormon cannot be known, but, if
not, there are many other New-World plant species that resemble barley. We refer to some native American plant species
as "foxtail barley," or little barley, which is found throughout North America. It grows north past the tree line
to the Arctic coast and on Baffin Island, and is found in every province and territory of Canada.
Barley would have been very important to the Nephites in their observance of the Law of Moses, for Passover was
associated with the ripening of barley crops. Within reasonable trading distances, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olive
oil, and honey could be procured for their observance of Passover. Palm branches used in their ceremonies could have
been acquired during trade relations in Florida or the Gulf Coast, although some palms grow as far north as southeast
Virginia. Because the weather was somewhat warmer during the Book of Mormon era, they may even have grown further north,
for with global warming, people are growing palms in Canada today. Interestingly, the Indian tribes of New York and
surrounding regions, namely the Erie, Neuter, Seneca, Huron, and Mohawk-Onondaga peoples refer to the “tree of the
long sword-like leaves,” which the learned Iroquois, Dr. Peter Wilson, called a “Palm Tree.” This in itself shows
the descendants of Lehi were well acquainted with that plant. Figs, with protection, grew as far north as Pennsylvania,
New York’s most southern neighbor. Honey farms also do well in Pennsylvania, and also along New York’s Mohawk
River Valley.
The subject of the Nephites and their observance of the Law of Moses is one which needs more attention, for not all regions are conducive to that observation. None has handled the subject better than the Hebrew scholar, Vincent Coon.
Grapes and Fruit
A variety of fruit and fruit trees flourish in New York, including apple, peach, mulberry, black haws,
grapes of different kinds, raspberries, blackberries and cranberries.
A number of large vineyards thrive in New York today, including in the
regions along the lowlands bordering Lake Erie, right where wicked King Noah
himself may have planted them. (See Mosiah 11:15.)
Thus we can easily reconcile any reference to wine in the Book of Mormon with the same wine we are familiar with today -
that made from grapes. (Some historians relate that the Norsemen stumbled onto what they referred to as Vineland in the
11th century which they speculate may have been either New York or Florida.)
Fruit still grows in New York’s north countries along the Lakes today.
And it came to pass that when they had humbled themselves sufficiently before the Lord he did send rain upon the face of the earth; and the people began to revive again, and there began to be fruit in the north countries, and in all the countries round about. And the Lord did show forth his power unto them in preserving them from famine. (Ether 9:35.)
Agriculture is noted in prehistoric New York, although few seeds have survived the ages to explain what was planted. In one of its many articles about the ancient ruins found throughout western New York, The Centennial History of Rochester, reported that there were signs of extensive cultivation having been made at some remote time in history. It went on to say that the flat plains of the Genesee country appear to have been “cleared and cultivated centuries earlier by a people far superior to the Indians.”[7] McGavin and Bean reported that when the first pathfinders penetrated the Finger Lakes region they found many such clearings, some of which enclosed as much as 10,000 acres, saying that “not even a wild bush encumbered the ground where the sharp tools of an agricultural people had cleared the land.”[8]
Notes:
1- McGavin & Bean, The Geography of the Book of Mormon, p. 8.
2- Herman Leroy Fairchild,
Geologic Story of the Genesee Valley and Western New York, p. 199.
3- William A. Ritchie, The Archaeology of New York State, p. 234.
4- William A. Ritchie, The Archaeology of New York State, p. 188.
5- William A. Ritchie, The Archaeology of New York State, p. 241.
6- William A. Ritchie, The Archaeology of New York State, p. 188.
7- McGavin & Bean, The Geography of the Book of Mormon, p. 65.
8- McGavin & Bean, The Geography of the Book of Mormon, p. 65.
Copyright © 1998 by Phyllis Carol Olive